Sociobiology

sociobiology: the systematic study of the biological basis of all forms of social behavior, in all kinds of organisms, including man (Wilson, 1978)

History of the theory and related theoretical views:

• 1700's and 1800's: German scientists study animal behavior
• late 1800’s: Darwin hypothesized that human anatomy & physiology had its roots in animal anatomy & physiology; Darwin also did the first baby biography on his son Doddie (Charles Jr.)
• 1930’s: Lorenz and Tinbergen (who shared the Nobel prize in Medicine or Physiology in 1973) began ethology as its own discipline; focused on animals as active organisms
• 1970’s: Edward O. Wilson and sociobiology "the study of the biological basis of human behavior"
• 1950's: work by John Bowlby on attachment which moved it from a psychoanalytic approach to an ethological/sociobiological one
• presently: influences developmental psychology and comparative psychology
• similar areas of research: ethology and evolutionary psychology

Main premise: the simple adaptations of early hunter/gatherer societies have evolved via hypertrophy (growth via overuse) into the more complex social institutions of modern society - moreover, these practices (both early and later) are phylogenetic (species level) adaptations to environmental pressures

Four major assumptions:

1. infants are born with an innate species-specific set of genetic instructions

2. this genetic programming determines reflexive and instinctual behavior in infants

3. individual variation arises from genetic variation and mutations

4. genotypical programming can allow for rapid social learning

 

• species-specific innate behavior

innateness defined: behavior that is a) stereotyped in form, b) present without relevant experience that could have allowed learning, c) universal and, d) unchanged by experience/learning after it is established

innate behaviors are species-specific: present either in all members or in certain subgroups (males, females, the young) :: if the same behavior is found in other species a) those species are related or b) the behavior is necessary for survival in that niche or c) the same behavior may have different meanings for different species

reflexes and fixed action patterns are two types of innate behaviors

• reflexes are simple responses to stimuli; these may disappear

• fixed action patterns - particular patterns of more complex motor behavior that are initiated by a releasing or sign stimulus [a specific stimulus that, when presented, automatically elicits the fixed action pattern] e.g. red mark on seagulls’ beaks

• evolutionary perspective

phylogenetic change - changes in the species

ontogenetic change - changes in the individual

fixed action patterns and reflexes are thought to reflect adaptive mechanisms necessary for survival (e.g., standing, opposable thumb and forefinger, family and other social groups)

behaviors may increase the survival of the species at the cost of individual lives, but other behaviors may no longer be necessary for survival; so trying to link behaviors with evolutionary explanations can sometimes be difficult

phenomena to be explained: social behaviors

10 qualities of sociality

• group size
• demographic distribution
• cohesiveness
• amount and pattern of connectedness
• permeability
• compartmentalization
• differentiation of roles
• integration of behavior
• information flow
• fraction of time devoted to social behavior

 

methods of investigation: observational methods (naturalistic and participant observations), laboratory experiments (more likely with animals than with humans), sometimes self-reports and tests

 

Two basic internal principles

genetic fitness: greater genetic fitness increases the likelihood that an adaptive phenotype will be passed on to other generations - offspring are more viable, hence more likely to survive to pass on the favorable trait//genetic fitness does not necessitate that a particular individual pass on the trait; closely-related others may suffice

phylogenetic inertia(stability of a species or resistance to evolutionary change) and ecological pressure(natural selection) are two ultimate causes (the other internal principle) of social behavior.

sources of phylogenetic inertia include: genetic variability, antisocial factors (factors that reduce social interaction such as disease and geographic isolation), and complexity of social behavior

types of ecological pressure include: changes in food supplies, predation, and competition

The bridge principle

proximate causes - the immediate influences on an individual, present in one’s lifetime

may include: demographic variables (e.g., death rates, birth rates, life span, etc.), rates of gene flow (degree of inbreeding/outbredding), and coefficients of relationship (a measure of kinship)

The change mechanisms

1) genetic mutations and sexual recombinations

2) reproductive success through natural selection

    - counteracting selection

Some research

research on dominance hierarchies - “a pattern of social relationships related to the resolution of social conflict”

both dominants and subordinates benefit from the hierarchy: dominants because they retain status, subordinates because they can avoid conflict ­ predicts that societies and groups with clear means of displaying status will be more conflict free (e.g., groups have greater conflict when being formed as compared to later)

altruism - although historically less studied than aggression, altruism is another area of interest - concept of reciprocal altruism (see also cooperation); less altruism is seen in the city because opportunities to return favors are less available -- also individuals may differ in the ability to attain resources -- suggestion that cooperation and altruism are always motivated by self gain!

research on kin systems - universal: incest taboos, special names for kin relations; ramifications for understanding child abuse: greater abuse by step parents, less attractive/less healthy children are also more likely to be abused; also, adoption: biological children are more favored than adopted children, nonindustrial societies tend to favor kinship adoptions

differential selection - males’ mortality rate is greater than females at all ages; selection operates differentially for the sexes with males being biologically more “expendable” ­ creates several sexual double standards, e.g., hypergamy, ornamentation, mating patterns

language - evidence for its innateness comes from 1) similar patterns of early language development (babbling) in deaf and hearing infants, 2) universal patterns of speech production cross-culturally, 3) universal production of the same phonemes at early stages of language development, 4) acquisition of basic grammatical rules without direct instruction, and 5) acquisition of complete grammar rules even without exposure to all of one’s native language

Contributions and criticisms

+ presents a new understanding of the connection between culture and evolution

+ provides unity to understanding human evolution and our connection with other living things

+ presents a new paradigm case

­ conceptual problems: endogenous determinism, are social behaviors genetic in origin, what makes a behavior adaptive (circular reasoning)

­ empirical problems: how universal are social behaviors (e.g., sexual double standard), how can we make the case for continuity when ancient cultures cannot be observed

Evaluation of sociobiology

Scientific worthiness

testability (med)

external validity (med)

predictive validity (med)

internal consistency (low)

theoretical economy (low)

 

Developmental adequacy

temporality (present)

cumulativity (present)

directionality (present)

new mode of organization (present)

increased capacity for self control (present)
 

Pedagogical Usefulness

interpretability (low)

versatility (low)

availability (med)

guidance (low)