Exogenous Theories: Skinner
Biographical Sketches
History of Social Learning Theory
Behaviorism
emphasis: individuals should only be studied in terms of observable
behavior
2 types:
methodological behaviorism – believes that inner experiences do not exist
because they are unobservable (e.g., animals)
radical behaviorism – mental processes and structures may exist, but cannot
be studied in verifiable ways; e.g., Skinner saw thoughts as byproducts
Classical Conditioning and Ivan Pavlov
A neutral stimulus (NS) is chosen and does not cause any particular reaction
(e.g., a bell might cause looking behavior, but not salivation).
1. An unconditioned stimulus (US) is presented after NS
(e.g., pairing a bell with the presentation of food, for example)
2. US and CS pairing elicits an unconditioned response (UR). This transforms
the NS into a conditioned stimulus (CS).
(e.g., bell + food ‡ salivation)
3. Over time, CS alone can elicit a conditioned response (CR)
(e.g., bell causes salivation when presented alone)
But, no new behaviors are learned, only new signals for a reflexive response.
Roots of US Behaviorism
John Watson & conditioned fear – established behaviorism in the US
Edward Thorndike & the law of effect – new type of conditioning based
on the response consequences
B.F. Skinner & operant conditioning – uncovered laws governing how behavior
is shaped by its effects – behavior produce consequences which in turn affects
behavior
operant = general class of behaviors (e.g., pecking at a key); each specific
occurrence of the response = response
General Orientation to the Theory
STRUCTURAL COMPENENTS OF OPERANT CONDITIONING
Assumptions
- infants are born with species-specific reflexes
- infants are essentially a blank slate in terms of knowledge of the
world
- infant is active – operant behavior is emitted, not elicited
Problems for Study
phenomena to be explained: basic laws that relate behavior to the environment;
potential to explain on mathematical terms
4 factors involved:
- behavior (complex or simple)
- past learning (intervening variable – cannot be directly observed or
manipulated, but can be controlled for)
- present conditions (stimulus variables – e.g., schedule of reinforcement,
level of deprivation)
- genetic endowment (restricts range of possible behaviors)
Methods of Study
- laboratory experiments, often with animals
- single subject experimental designs with baseline readings
Internal Principles
A. contingent reinforcement – reinforcement follows the response; role of
primary (unconditioned) and secondary (conditioned) reinforcers
B. discriminative stimulus – in operant conditioning, the operant follows
the discriminative stimulus and precedes the reinforcing stimulus
C. Shaping - Successive approximations to desired behavior are reinforced
Bridge Principles
Schedules of reinforcement
1. Continuous reinforcement - Reinforcement comes after each desired response
(often useful in shaping)
2. Intermittent or partial reinforcement
Ratio schedules:
i. Fixed-ratio: Reinforcement after fixed number of responses
ii. Variable-ratio: Reward after variable number of responses
Interval schedules
i. Fixed-interval: Reinforcement after constant time elapses
ii. Variable-interval: Reward after varying time intervals
3. concurrent schedules & extinction
if a behavior continues to occur even in the absence of reinforcement, it
might mean that a concurrent schedule or random reinforcement was used
Generalization
stimulus generalization – transfer of previous learning to new situations
response generalization – different responses occur with the same discriminative
stimulus (e.g., possible responses to a bike can include pedaling, balancing,
steering, and later tricks)
Behavior chains
in order to get complex behaviors, simple behaviors must be chained together
– reinforcement occurs for the last behavior in the chain
Change Mechanisms
reinforcement (generally) – 4 specific types:
Positive Reinforcement (R+) - Increases Behavior
Punishment - Decreases Behavior
Negative Punishment - Decreases Behavior
Negative Reinforcement (R-) - Increases Behavior
THE RESEARCH & EVALUATION
Discrimination learning: changing behavior in the face of a discriminative
stimulus
- concept learning
- prosocial behavior
- deviant behaviors
- learned helplessness
Contributions & Criticisms
+ scientific methodology
+ laws of operant conditioning
+ practical applications
+ behavior modification & token economies
– reductionism
– verbal learning
– definition of behavior
– nature of reinforcement
Evaluation
Scientific worthiness
testability
(high)
external validity
(high)
predictive validity
(med)
internal consistency
(high)
theoretical economy
(high)
Developmental adequacy
temporality
(present)
cumulativity
(present)
directionality
(absent)
new mode of organization
(absent)
increased capacity for self control (absent)
Pedagogical Usefulness
interpretability (med)
versatility
(high)
availability
(high)
guidance
(high)