The Role of the Home Video Camera in Risky Adolescent Behavior1
Charles M. Slem, Shawn M. Burn, and Ned W. Schultz
Psychology and Human Development Department
Cal Poly, San Luis Obispo
cslem@calpoly.edu
|
|
 |
|
click |
----DRAFT----
Two hundred ten introductory psychology students at a western polytechnic university were surveyed to determine the frequency of videotaping risky behavior and the possible personality and social influence mechanisms that underlie such use. 86.2% reported engaging in at least one of the risky behaviors during high school and college, and 51.4% participated in the videotaping of at least one risky behavior incident. Approximately half of students reported that they exaggerated their behaviors while being videotaped. Sensation seeking was positively related to videotaping risky behavior, and there was evidence of strong social influence. Only one media variable, exposure to MTV’s Jackass television program was related to videotaping risky behavior. There were significant gender differences.
There is often shock and public outcry when home videotapes are shown of adolescents seriously injuring themselves while trying to replicate stunts they had seen in the movies or on television (e.g. MTV’s Jackass or WWF wrestling). In addition, there is outrage when adolescents videotape other risky behaviors such as vandalism, extreme sports, and public drunkenness. These videotaped escapades are often analyzed from the vantage point of adolescent risk taking or the effects of media (television, action movies, violent video games). What has been overlooked in the analysis of these kinds of acts is the role of the video camera itself. This project was undertaken to determine the frequency of videotaping risky adolescent behavior and the possible mechanisms that underlie such use.
The proliferation of home video cameras over the past decade has made them especially accessible to adolescents. Luther (1998) pointed out that a video camera has become quite inexpensive. Newer cameras require no technical skill to operate, are small enough to be handheld, and contain a playback feature for future viewing. It has been recently estimated that approximately one third of the households with children own a video camera (Mediamark Research Inc., 2001) By high school, many students are using home video cameras to complete class projects.
Adolescent risk taking is well documented (e.g. Douglas et al., 1997) and has been associated with increased susceptibility to injury and death. Anderson (2001) found that behaviors resulting in unintentional injuries constitute the primary cause of death for children (5-14 years) and adolescents (15-24 years). Males have been found to take more risks than females (Byrnes, Miller, & Schafer, 1999), and males face a greater risk for injury and death during adolescence.
One of the most widely studied personality factors has been sensation-seeking tendencies (Zuckerman, 1994), especially thrill and adventure-seeking (desire for activities involving moderate risk) and disinhibition of impulses (seeking sensation by casting off inhibition). Rolision (2001), for example, found that sensation seeking was a significant predictor of risk frequency in her study of factors that influence the decision of adolescents to engage in risk-taking behavior.
Risk taking behavior can also be viewed as social behavior, subject to a wide range of social influence. Risky behavior may be a vehicle for initiating, consolidating or maintaining group relationships (Lightfoot, 1997). Shared risks promote cohesion, trust, and closeness. Reicher (1987) noted that group behavior that seems mindless, antinormative, and disinhibited to group outsiders may actually be normative to group members. Deinividuation is a psychological state associated with antinormative behavior in groups, and experienced as a diminished awareness of self and individuality. Deinividuation serves to reduce an individual's self-restraint. Postmes and Spears (1998), however, concluded that the social identity model of deindividuation effects (SIDE) explains that the apparent state of deindividuation is actually a switch to social norms in the immediate social context.
Finally, risky adolescent behavior has been associated with exposure to media, especially media in the form of realistic crime shows, contact sports, and participation in various forms of risk taking (e.g. Krcmar & Greene, 2000). Many of the adolescents engaged in risky behavior may be modeling the behavior from popular television shows depicting “ordinary” people engaging in such acts. Observers may see these models rewarded due to their being on television and due to their peer’s laughter and admiration.
In this study, the prevalence of recording risky behavior with home video cameras, and the relationship between the act of videotaping and personality variables, social influences, and exposure to media were examined in a group of college students. The portion of the research presented here details the frequency and occurrence of videotaped risky behavior, and presents preliminary analysis of the relationships with sensation-seeking, social influences, and media exposure.
Method
Participants
Two hundred and ten students enrolled in introductory psychology courses at a Western polytechnic university participated in the study. Students were offered extra course credit for participation (or they could alternatively read an article on media violence and write a brief reaction paper to receive the same extra credit).
Measures
Students anonymously provided background information on class year, gender, age, ethnicity, and academic major. They completed a survey which included information about their previous experience with video cameras at home or at school, the effect on their behavior when videotaped, and their participation in risky behavior across six categories (extreme sports, extreme physical activities, property damage, extreme operation of motorized vehicles, excessive drinking activities, and displays of public nudity). They also indicated the extent to which they videotaped those activities. The participants reported the amount of time playing videogames and viewing particular television programs and types of movies viewed during a typical week. Students were given the opportunity to describe the most outrageous act they had videotaped, and based on that incident they completed a survey assessing the effect of social influences on their state of mind. Finally, they completed the sensation-seeking scale (Zuckerman, 1994), and several health status questions.
Procedure
Students filled out the survey at their own convenience and returned the completed surveys at the next class period. Of the students who were eligible to participate, 98% completed the surveys and returned them to the researchers.Results
Demographics
The students in this study were largely first year students (71.4%), with an average age of 19.1 years. Approximately 70% were Caucasian, and although the university population was roughly 60% males, the sample was adjusted to have equal numbers of men and women.
Experience with Video Cameras
The majority of students have had experience with participating in video taping at home or at school (Table 1), with over one half of the students reporting having had frequent or occasional participation with videotaping in these settings.
Effect on Behavior When Videotaped
In evaluating how they were likely to act when being videotaped by a friend or themselves, 50.4 % indicated that they acted in an exaggerated manner when being videotaped (Table 2). About a fifth, 20.5%, reported acting as if they were not being videotaped, and 29% reported that they were shy and embarrassed when they were videotaped.
Almost two-thirds of the students reported that they tended to act in a way that others might see as funny in videotaping. Almost as many reported acting silly, 61.9%, and 26.7% reported acting withdrawn. A quarter of the students indicated that their behavior might be seen as risky, and about 15% reported that others would see their behavior as dangerous or illegal.
Males were more likely to report acting in a more exaggerated manner than females (df208, t=3.13, p<.002). Women were more likely to report acting silly when being videotaped, and men more likely to report acting risky, dangerous, and illegally.
Prevalence of Risky Behavior
Table 3 summarizes the occurrence of risky behaviors in the six behavior categories. Almost all the males, 95.2%, and over three-fourths of the females, 77.1%, reported engaging in one or more of the category activities during high school or college. Almost two-thirds of the males reported having engaged in extreme sport activities, extreme physical activities, or excessive drinking. Limiting the time period to the previous 12 months only slightly reduced the overall rates (86.2% to 83.8%).
There were gender differences for extreme sports, extreme physical activities, property damage, and reckless operation of vehicles, with men engaging in these activities at a higher rate. Only excessive drinking and displays of public nudity were similar for both men and women.
Videotaping of Risky Behavior
The majority of students, 51.4%, also reported that they had participated in the videotaping of at least one or more “extreme” activities (Table 4). With the exception of excessive drinking activities and public nudity, there were significant gender differences for each category, as well as for total number of activity categories video taped (df208, t=4.64, p<.0001). Men were more likely to videotape extreme sports, extreme physical activities, and reckless operation of motorized vehicles. The Appendix includes samples of behaviors reported by participants in each risk activity category.
In addition,13.3% of the participants reported getting injured while being videotaped, and approximately 20% of those injured requiried professional medical attention.
Sensation-Seeking
Two subscales of the Sensation-Seeking Scale were used in this preliminary analysis, thrill and adventure-seeking and disinhibition. Both thrill and adventure-seeking and disinhibition were related to the total number of activity categories video taped, r=.46, r=.48, p<.001.
Social Influences
Of 76 students who described one extreme activity in some detail, 49.4% agreed that the camera influenced them to act in a more exaggerated manner. Fifty-six percent agreed with the item “I am proud that I have proof that I had the guts to do what I did.” These students were more likely to be male, younger, and more adventuresome. For 28.4% of the participants, alcohol was a factor in performing their videotaped stunt, and 11.5% reported that drugs other than alcohol played a role.
Students responded to items in this section of the survey on a seven point scale with three levels of agreement (strongly agree, agree, slightly agree) and three levels of disagreement (strongly disagree, disagree, and disagree slightly). Preliminary assessment of social group influence was conducted by combining the three levels of agreement for each item (Table 5).
Table 5 Percent Agree to Social Factor Items
% Agree
Importance of the Group
At the time, the friends I was with were very important to me. 94.2%
This group was an important part of who I was. 72.0%
I felt like I was a valued member of this group. 92.6%
Normative Behavior
My behavior was consistent with what my friends would approve of. 72.5%
I am proud that I have proof that I had the guts to do what I did. 56.0%
Group Cohesion
At the time, doing this CthingD and videotaping it brought us closer together. 55.7%
As I did it, I was thinking about watching the video with my friends later. 61.1%
Deindividuation
I would say that I was not fully aware of what I was doing. 21.2%
I did not quite feel like myself as I did the activity. 20.5%
Importance of the group
The importance of the group to the participants in videotaping risky behavior is reflected in 94.2% of the participants who agreed that the group was a very important to them, and 92.6% who agreed that they “felt like a valued member of the group”. For 72% of the students, “This group was an important part of who I was”.Normative behavior
The influence of the norms of the group on participants’ behavior was reflected in 72.5% who agreed that “My behavior was consistent with what my friends would approve of”.Group cohesion
As a measure of facilitating group cohesion, 55.7% agreed that “At the time, doing this “thing” and videotaping it brought us closer together”, and 61.1% agreed with the item “As I did it, I was thinking about watching the video with my friends later”.
Deindividuation
To several questions designed to assess a diminished awareness of self and individuality, participants responded similarly to the items “I would say that I was not fully aware of what I was doing”, and “I did not quite feel like myself as I did the activity” with agreement by 21.2% and 20.5% .
Media Variables
In this preliminary analysis, only one media variable discriminated participants from non participants (MTV’s Jackass television show, df208, t=5.07, p.<.0001). However, 18.9% indicated that they were copying something from a television show or movie.Discussion
While risky behavior is a hallmark of adolescence, this study suggests that the availability of the home video camera adds an important social as well as technological catalyst for risky behavior that may help better understand the nature of adolescent risk taking.
Video camera technology has become readily available, and the college students in this study were familiar with the use of video cameras from experience at home and at school. They were aware that being videotaped influenced their behavior by most typically exaggerating it. While being funny or silly were the most likely kind of exaggerations, almost a quarter of the students described their typical behavior on videotape as risky, and approximately 15% described their behavior as dangerous and 15% as illegal. Most students had engaged in risky behaviors such as extreme sports, extreme physical activities, property damage, extreme operation of motorized vehicles, excessive drinking activities, and displays of public nudity. Over half of the students in this study, 51.4%, videotaped the performance of at least one or more of their risky behaviors. Of the students who described an incident like those covered in the Appendix in great detail, almost half reported that they exaggerated their already risky behavior for the camera.
From the perspective of the general risk of injury, these results suggest that videotaping risky behavior activities may increase the dangerousness of that behavior. Exaggerating an already inherently risky behavior does invite the serious injuries that have captured public attention when the videotapes have been made public on the evening news. When one considers that a significant number of these events occur when the students have been drinking or using other recreational drugs, it is not surprising that 20% of the students injured required professional medical treatment.
While the public health implications of home video cameras in the hands of adolescents are important, the phenomenon as an unique social catalyst is also of great interest. Like adolescent risky behavior in general, preliminary analysis on sensation seeking and social influences suggest that the activity of videotaping risky behavior can be explained at both the personal and social levels of analysis. For example, like other kinds of adolescent risky behavior, those students who are high in sensation seeking are more likely to engage in the videotaping of the risky behavior and that literature can be helpful in understanding some of the personality characteristics that predispose adolescents to engage in such behaviors.
The social influence analysis, which is in its preliminary phase, also holds promise in understanding the role of the video camera in risk taking as well as understanding the nature of the group processes within which adolescent risk taking is imbedded. For example, when viewed as an integral part of the facilitation of social group functioning, videotaping risky behavior may well be a catalyst in forming and maintaining group cohesion. Participants reported that the groups they were in were very important to their social identity, and that their behavior in the video tape was consistent with what others expected. This suggests that this apparent antinormative risky behavior was considered normative for their social group. Participants looked forward to viewing the behaviors with their group members in the future. The significance of this process is underscored by the high percentage of participants who were “proud to show I had the guts to do what I did” and indicates additional normative social group pressure to exaggerate the extremeness of their risky behavior.
Since the videotape is something that can be preserved and would be viewed at a later date by the group attests to its important role in the maintenance of the group. Mutual sharing of this relived experience, with discussions about the planning, execution and outcome of the videotaping are rich areas for further investigation about the nature of these adolescent groups.
Traditional notions of deindividuation do not seem to be as salient as social factors. This will be investigated in more detail using the SIDE model.
The role of exposure to media is complicated. With the exception MTV’s Jackass program, there was not a straight forward predictive relationship between various types of media exposure and subsequent videotaping of risky behavior in this preliminary broad assessment (total amount of videotaping across categories). Students who were exposed to models of risky behavior by playing violent video games, watching violent or action movies, or watching reality television, etc. were no more or less likely to participate in videotaping risky behavior. The research in this area is inconsistent. The results in this study are consistent with recent video game research, Durkin & Barber, 2002, which found no negative influence in a sample of 1,304 16-year-old high school students who scored more favorably on a number of adjustment dimensions than did peers who never played computer games, but inconsistent with Anderson & Dill (1999) who found that violent video game play was positively related to increases in aggressive behavior with possible links to later antinormative behavior. It is an area that warrants continued examination.
This is not to conclude that media had no effect in this study since 18.9 % of the participants who described an incident in detail reported that they were copying something they had seen on television or in the movies. Furthermore, the relationship between watching MTV’s Jackass and videotaping is significant as the program was set up in a way that might appear to offer ideas about the kinds of risky stunts that could be done and modeling how to go about setting up the stunt. There is also considerable peer social approval imbedded in the program. More detailed media analyses, e.g. relating specific television programs with specific activity categories by gender may reveal relationships not uncovered in this preliminary analysis.References
Anderson, C. and Dill, K. (1999). Video games and aggressive thoughts, feelings, and behavior in the laboratory and in life. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology. 78, 772-790.
Anderson, R. (2001). Death: Leading causes for 1999, National Vital Statistics Report. 49, 55-67.
Byrnes, J., Miller, D., and Schafer, W. (1999) Gender differences in risk taking: A meta-analysis. Psychological Bulletin. 125, 367-383.
Douglas, K., Collins, J., Warren, C., Kann, L., Gold, R., Clayton, S., Ross, J., and Kolbe, L. (1997) Results from the 1995 national college health risk behavior survey. Journal of American College Health. 46, 55-66
Durkin, K., and Barber, B. (2002). Not so doomed: Computer play and positive adolescent development. Journal of Applied Developmental Psychology. Vol 23, 373-392.
Krcmar, M., and Greene, K. (2000). Connections between violent television exposure and adolescent risk taking. Media Psychology. 2, 195-217.
Lightfoot, C. (1997). The Culture of Adolescent Risk Taking. New York: Guilford Press.
Luther, A. (1998) Video Camera Technology. Boston: Artech House.
Mediamark Research, Inc. (2001). Report: Electronics, Camcorder, Household Owns. [CD ROM].
Postmes, T., & Spears, R. (1998). Deindividuation and anti-normative behavior: A meta-analysis. Psychological Bulletin, 123, 238-259.
Rolision, M. (2002). Factors influencing adolescents’ decisions to engage in risk-taking behavior. Adolescence, 37, 585-597.
Zuckerman, M. (1994). Behavioura lExpressions and Biosocial Bases of Sensation Seeking. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
Appendix 1: Examples of Videotaped Risky Behavior By Category
back
Extreme Sports
“We use to jump off ramps over huge garbage cans while on roller blades.”
“skateboard holding onto the bumper of a moving vehicle.”
“extreme skiing, i.e. jumping off of cliffs while snow skiing.”
“extreme snowboarding, jumping off cliffs, doing extreme tricks.”
Extreme Physical Activities
“One time my friends videotaped us jumping from the second-floor of Yosemite hall into this bush, boy it was cool.”
“jumped off 60 ft. cliff into water.”
“A friend and I hung out an open door of a car going over 70 mph holding the video camera an inch or two above the ground.”
“Recently staged and videotaped fight outside Woodstock's Pizza.”
“Simulated wrestling”
Behavior Likely to Cause Property Damage
“Built a giant model rocket and filled it with black powder and solid fuel engines. Shot it off and watched it blow up at about 1000 ft. Explosion was huge and police and fire responded. Field caught fire.”
“Videotaped putting a car in a swimming pool.”
“dragged a portable toilet behind my truck when we were in high school.”
Extreme Operation of a Motorized Vehicle
“Having a jumping contest with our lifted trucks. The winner jumped about 12 ft off the ground and a distance of 93 ft.”
“Racing Quads on the street.”
“street racing.”
Excessive Drinking Activities
“An incredibly drunken night at a cabin in Canada.”
“Video taped a party where everyone was participating in a drinking contest.”
“Century Club --> 100 shots of beer in 100 minutes.”
Displays of Public Nudity
“This year, Mardi Gras downtown, flashing guys for beads.”
“Videotaped a friend going door to door mooning each house.”
“dancing on a bar topless in Mexico over spring break then making out with a girl.”
“Streaked through fast food restaurants”
Combinations/Other
“My boyfriend and I filmed ourselves while having sex.”
“We were drunk riding quads. I found a King snake. We video taped it and were imitating the Crocodile Hunter. It tried to bite my friend. Funny stuff.”
“We made an entire video of stupid stuff. Car chases. Surfing on tops of cars. Jumping off cliffs. Throwing things off a roof to see them explode.”
1Paper Presented at the 83rd Annual Convention of the Western Psychological Association, Vancouver, British Columbia, Canada, May 4, 2003
back
top
The reason Dr. Slem got interested in this
area -- this was on the hard drive of his home computer. --
his kids and their friends in action.HiSpeed Connection............................................56k connection 0:44
Back to research page