Chinese did not accept Buddhism in its Indian form.  It was modified by certain ways of Chinese thinking so that it diverged to a great degree.

A.  Translation

 1.  Chinese made complete translations of Buddhist scriptures into Chinese.  Chinese language has fewer verbal forms than Sanskrit, Chinese is abundant in words expressing bodies and shapes but poor in verbs expressing change and transformation.

 2.  In translating they did not use Sanskrit or Prakit as the sacred language of the Buddhist church.

 3.  Chinese translators often made adaptations and interpretations of the originals. Often heightened the magical and artistic effects.

 4.  Later scholars were unable to understand even the meaning of earlier Chinese translation.

 5.  Many texts of Chinese Buddhism developed along lines entirely different from the doctrines of Indian schools.

 6. Exegetical techniques of Chinese Buddhists are entirely different from those of Indians.

B.  Persistent Ways of Chinese thinking and how it altered Buddhism

 1.  Language characteristics
Graphic character of writing, vocabulary, Chinese thinking has tended to a concreteness of expression (use of concrete imagery), use of diagrams to explain metaphysical theories.

 2. Lack of Consciousness of Universals
 Chinese esteemed differences of rank more than they valued comprehending a group of related phenomena in a universal. Absolute in not the important subject, relations between phenomena greatly emphasized.

 3.  Lack of development of dialogue
 A great deal of Indian Logic had no significance for the Chinese (magistrate not judge).
 
4.  Lack of Conscious Use of General
Non-logical character of Zen Buddhism Poetical and emotional phrases take the place of logical exposition. Laws (grammar not well developed) (Logic which deals with the laws for the expression of thought did not develop)

5.  Emphasis on the particular.
Identify Indian mythical beings with actual historical persons. (Eg. Yama, King of Hell or Yen-lo became identified with a Sui dynasty official who died in 592.) Ethics is explained on the basis of particular experiences.  Development of lists, catalogs, history.  Chinese tried to write a history of Indian Buddhism.  Dominant object of Chinese scholars’ worship was Sakyamuni.

6.  Conservatism ­ Exaltation of Antiquity
Importance attached to events of the past.  Golden Age.  Learning means full knowledge of the precedents of the past.  The Five Classics.  Emphasis on passing things from generation to generation without change.  Esteem for the founder’s teachings.  Teacher-Student relationship.  Anything older is more correct.

 7. Non-development of Free Thought
  Little acceptance for questioning authority.  Private property rights were established but rights of freedom guaranteed by law did not exist.

8.  Traditional Character of Scholarship
 "To learn" means "to imitate."  Life should be guided by knowledge of previous examples (over meditation).

9.  Concrete character of Artistic Imagination
An emphasis on things that can be apprehended through the senses over imagination. A tendency toward exaggeration of expression, lack of exactness. Grandiloquent styles.

10. Fondness for Formal Conformity
 Systematization of doctrine and practice.

11. Anthropocentric Attitude
All things considered from an anthropocentric standpoint.  Concept of non-ego has been expressed as humanism.

12.  Folk religion
 Indian Buddhism was generally a metaphysical teaching about the past and future worlds of man but the Buddhism which spread among the  common Chinese was often a Buddhism of magic, spells and prayers.  Chanting a word which could not be understood, (OHM, O mi-t’o-fo)

13. Belief in a soul (po, hsun) but little discussion of man’s destiny after death.

14.  Individualism
Altruism highly esteemed before Buddhism.  Consciousness of being members of a nation or state is weak.  Self and personal relations, especially in family stressed.  Non-sectarian.  Individual priest or monk had a right to live in any temple so long a he observed the Buddhist precepts.  Preaching through individual priests.  No governing religious organization.  Buddhist followers are not punished ore expelled even if they do not observe the Buddhist precepts.  Freedom of religious belief.

15. Esteem for hierarchy
Power and ideas two aspects of one and the same universe.  Man could exert power over nature.  Man is man only when he observed the right way of acting as man.

C.  Problem areas

1.  Humanity/Nature  Chinese and Indian views of the relation of man to other living things were so opposed that Buddhism had to be transformed in going from India to China.

2. Sexual matters Indians tend to be plain spoken and open.  Confucians have an aversion to writings about sex, especially in religious scripture.  Indian  Buddhism prohibited sexual relations except with one’s own wife, concubines?  According to the Chinese view, the physical body of man is ugly and dirty so that clothes are covering for the ugly body.

3. Rules ­ formalism in behavior, rank and social position given a high value.  Buddhism was revolutionary in teaching equality of mankind with disregard for status and class.

4. High Value placed on Patriarchal Kinship
The family (chia) is all important in the life of the individual. Filial piety taught with a one-sided obedience from children.  Forced to adopt ancestor worship.

5. Power of Emperor ranked over Religion.  Strong State
Politics and cosmology were not separate.  Buddhist society controlled by the state.  The basic spirit of Buddhism which was not to make friends with emperors or kings was completely ignored.

6.  Esteem for Nature
Nature acknowledged as absolute existence.  Seek significance in everyday life.

7.  Optimism
Perfect existence must exist in this world.  Harmony of all existences necessry to live in peace.  Natural phenomena and man-made institutions are mutually interrelated.

8. Lack and idea of absolute evil.

Five Deadly sins:
to kill one’s own father,
to kill one’s own mother,
to kill and arhat (one who has attained enlightenment),
to disturb the harmony of the Buddhist organization to harm Buddha’s person.

9.  Truth
Indians acknowledged significance of various religions as partial manifestations of an absolute truth.  They did not maintain that the doctrines of these religions and philosophies could be matched and were mutually alike.

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